Punjabi communities exist across continental Europe: in Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Norway and elsewhere, alongside the much larger Italian community.
Many arrived through asylum applications in the 1980s and 1990s and through labour migration since, and a substantial proportion work in agriculture, food processing, logistics and construction.
Gurdwaras exist in most of these countries. The Netherlands and Germany have long-established communities; Greece and Spain have newer and largely agricultural ones.
Conditions in the agricultural sectors of southern Europe have been the subject of investigations into labour exploitation in Italy, Spain and Greece, with Punjabi and other South Asian workers among those affected.
The European Punjabi communities are much less studied and much less institutionally organised than the British and North American ones, and their circumstances are generally worse.
They are also the newest, which means the story of what happens to them is not written yet.
The German and Dutch communities grew from the 1970s and 1980s, in significant part through asylum applications during the conflict years, and the gurdwaras there date from that period.
Italy has one of the largest Punjabi populations in Europe, concentrated in the dairy belt of the Po valley, where Punjabi workers are a substantial part of the labour making Italian hard cheese.
Money moves the other way and it moves in quantity. Remittances out of Europe into the Doaba are a large part of what several districts run on, arriving through banks and through the older informal channels, and no institution at either end has a clear picture of the total.